- Figure 3.8. Invalid Vote Campaign Emergence Conditional on Grievances, Affective Polarization. Source: Varieties of Democracy (V-Dem), original data collection. Note: The figure shows results from logistic regression analyses predicting the emergence of an invalid vote campaign using an interaction between each measure of democratic quality and affective polarization (N = 218). Year controls are included, and standard errors are clustered by country. The figure presents 84% confidence intervals around point estimates, which is equivalent to a 95% confidence interval around the difference across lines.
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