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Death in the Iron Age of Eastern England: An Interdisciplinary Analysis of Human Remains from 800 BC – AD 60
Michael Legge
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Death in the Iron Age of Eastern Englandexplores the treatment of the non-cremated dead from 800BC - c.AD60 in what is now eastern England. The research presented identifies large-scale patterns in post-mortem treatment, furthering existing debates around excarnation practices, inhumation traditions and the ‘invisible dead’. The region has seen comparatively little in-depth study in recent years, while the quantity of excavated material has increased exponentially due to the rise of development-led archaeology. This book gathers and presents the known data to shed light on an under-researched part of Iron Age Britain through the study of complete inhumations, partial skeletal remains and disarticulated human bones. The data is interpreted via integrated methodological approaches that combine contextual archaeology, osteology and bone taphonomy to better understand post-mortem processes, regional variation and the role of the dead in Iron Age societies.
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Front Cover
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Title
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Copyright
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Of Related Interest
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Acknowledgements
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Contents
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List of Figures
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List of Tables
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Abbreviations
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1. Introduction
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1.1. The research landscape
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1.2. Geographical and chronological boundaries
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1.3. Large–scale data and its boundaries
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1.4. Geological factors in bone preservation
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1.5. Aims and objectives
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1.6. Structure of the work
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2. History of Research and Theoretical Themes
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2.1. Introduction
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2.2. Previous research
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2.2.1. Large–scale burial reviews
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2.2.2. Previous research on pit burials
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2.2.3. The excarnation debate
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2.3. Mortuary theory—key concepts
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2.3.1. Defining burial
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2.3.2. Defining ritual
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2.3.3. Identity
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2.3.4. Death and society
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2.3.5. Change and transformation
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2.3.6. Liminality, and the body as object
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2.4. Conclusions
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3. Materials and Methodologies
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3.1. Introduction
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3.2. Material
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3.2.1. Total data
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3.2.2. Inhumations
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3.2.3. Disarticulated remains
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3.2.4. Articulated and semi–articulated bones
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3.2.5. Data limitations
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3.2.6. The ‘invisible dead’—other considerations
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3.3. Archaeological data methods
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3.3.1. Coding
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3.3.2. Site conglomerations
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3.3.3. Data presentation
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3.3.4 Disarticulated remains—data recording
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3.4. Osteological methodology and recording standards
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3.4.1. Preservation
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3.4.2. Age estimation
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3.4.3. Sex estimation
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3.4.4. Stature estimation
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3.5. Common palaeopathologies—skeletal
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3.5.1. Cribra orbitalia / Porotic hyperostosis
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3.5.2. Osteoarthritis
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3.5.3. Infection / Periosteal new bone
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3.5.4. Schmorl’s nodes
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3.5.5. Trauma
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3.6. Common palaeopathologies—Dental
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3.6.1. Calculus
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3.6.2. Caries
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3.6.3. Periodontal disease
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3.6.4. Periapical cavities
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3.6.5. Antemortem tooth loss
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3.6.6. Linear enamel hypoplasia (LEH)
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3.7. Macroscopic taphonomy methodology
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3.7.1. Weathering
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3.7.2. Gnawing
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3.7.3. Trampling
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3.7.4. Polish / Abrasion
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3.7.5. Cut and chop marks
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3.7.6. Perimortem fractures
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3.8. Conclusion
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4. Results 1—Early Iron Age Inhumations
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4.1. Introduction
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4.2. Geographic distribution
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4.3. Chronology
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4.4. Site type
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4.5. Depositional context
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4.5.1. Pit burials
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4.5.2. Grave burials
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4.5.3. Ditch burial
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4.5.4. Other contexts
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4.6. Burial position
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4.6.1. Extended inhumations
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4.6.2. Crouched and flexed inhumations
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4.6.3. Other positions
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4.7. Orientation
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4.8. Facing direction
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4.9. Burial accompaniments
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4.9.1. Pottery
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4.9.2. Personal ornaments
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4.9.3. Multiple associated goods/remains
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4.9.4. Material in other fills
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4.9.5. Other inclusions
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4.10. Age
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4.10.1. Age and burial context
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4.10.2. Age and grave goods
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4.10.3. Age and sex
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4.11. Sex
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4.11.1. Sex and location
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4.11.2. Sex and burial context
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4.11.3. Sex and position / orientation
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4.11.4. Sex and grave goods
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4.12. Conclusions
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5. Results 2—Middle Iron Age Inhumations
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5.1. Geographic distribution
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5.2. Chronology
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5.3. Site type
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5.4. Depositional context
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5.4.1. Pit burials
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5.4.2. Grave burials
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5.4.3. Ditch burials
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5.4.4. House burials
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5.4.5. Burial enclosures
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5.4.6. Double burials
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5.4.7. Other
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5.5. Burial position
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5.5.1. Extended inhumations
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5.5.2. Crouched and flexed inhumations
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5.5.3. Other positions
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5.6. Orientation
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5.7. Facing direction
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5.8. Burial accompaniments
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5.8.1. Animal bone
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5.8.2. Pottery
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5.8.3. Personal ornaments
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5.8.4. Multiple associated goods
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5.8.5. Material in other fills
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5.8.6. Other
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5.9. Age
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5.9.1. Age and burial context
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5.9.2. Age and grave goods
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5.9.3. Age and sex
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5.10. Sex
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5.10.1. Sex and burial context
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5.10.2. Sex and position/orientation
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5.10.3. Sex and grave goods
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5.11. Conclusions
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6. Results 3—Late Iron Age–Conquest Period
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6.1. Geographic distribution of sites and burials
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6.2. Chronology
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6.3. Site type
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6.3.1. Cemeteries
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6.3.2. Settlements
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6.3.3. Hillforts/ringworks
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6.3.4. Isolated burials
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6.3.5. Mortuary landscapes
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6.3.6. Other
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6.4. Depositional context
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6.4.1. Grave burials
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6.4.2. Pit burial
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6.4.3. Ditch burial
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6.4.4. Multiple burials
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6.4.5. Enclosed burials
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6.4.6. Other
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6.5. Burial position
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6.5.1. Extended inhumations
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6.5.2. Crouched and flexed inhumations
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6.5.3. Other positions
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6.6. Orientation
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6.7. Facing direction
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6.8. Burial accompaniments
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6.8.1. Animal bone
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6.8.2. Pottery
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6.8.3. Personal ornaments
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6.8.4. Metalwork and weapons
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6.8.5. Multiple associated goods/remains
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6.8.6. Material in other fills
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6.8.7. Other
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6.9. Age
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6.9.1. Age and burial context
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6.9.2. Age and burial position
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6.9.3. Age and grave goods
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6.9.4. Age and sex
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6.10. Sex
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6.10.1. Sex and location
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6.10.2. Sex and site / burial context
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6.10.3. Sex and position / orientation
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6.10.4. Sex and grave goods
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6.11. Conclusion
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6.12. Iron Age—imprecisely dated
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7. Articulated Human Skeletal Deposits
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7.1. Introduction
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7.2. Deposit demographics
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7.3. Represented elements
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7.4. Interpretation of depositional practices
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7.4.1. Inhumations
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7.4.2. Body bundles / secondary / tertiary inhumations
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7.4.3. Articulated body parts
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7.4.4. Bundles of bones (token deposits)
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7.4.5. Victims of conflict and violent deposits
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7.4.6. Bone spreads
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7.5. Conclusion
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8. Disarticulated Remains and Macroscopic Taphonomy
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8.1. Introduction and aims
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8.2. The data
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8.3. Feature type
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8.4. Represented elements
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8.5. Age
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8.6. Sex
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8.7. Side
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8.8. Associated material
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8.9. Taphonomy
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8.10. Natural modifications
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8.10.1. Weathering
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8.10.2. Trampling
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8.10.3. Gnawing
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8.11. Human modifications
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8.11.1. Cut/saw marks
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8.11.2. Chop marks
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8.11.3. Fractures
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8.11.4. Abrasion / polish
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8.11.5. Perforated bone
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8.11.6. Worked bone objects
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8.12. Conclusion
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9. Demography, Health, and Trauma
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9.1. Introduction
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9.2. Age
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9.3. Sex
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9.3.1. Age and sex compared
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9.4. Stature
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9.5. Pathology
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9.5.1. Trauma
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9.5.2. Degenerative pathologies
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9.5.3. Nutrition/health–related conditions
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9.5.4. Infection and Disease
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9.5.5. Other pathologies
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9.6. Oral health
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9.6.1. Antemortem tooth loss
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9.6.2. Calculus
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9.6.3. Caries
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9.6.4. Linear enamel hypoplasia
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9.6.5. Periodontal disease
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9.6.6. Periapical cavities / abscesses
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9.6.7. Third hand use
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9.6.8. Other
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9.7. Conclusion
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10. Discussion
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10.1. Introduction
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10.2. Population demography
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10.3. Chronological change
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10.3.1. The LBA–EIA transition
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10.3.2. EIA–LIA consistencies and changes
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10.3.3. The inhumation increase
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10.4. Health, sickness and violence
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10.4.1. Nutrition, care and support
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10.4.2. Violence in life and death
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10.5. Interpreting pit burials
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10.5.1. Pit burial as a normative rite
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10.5.2. Pit burials as sacrifices
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10.5.3. Pit burials as social transgressors
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10.6. Other notable inhumation patterns
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10.6.1. Interpreting ditch burials
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10.6.2. Barrow burials
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10.6.3. Animals and people
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10.6.4. Burials with stones
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10.7. Discerning excarnation/disarticulation sequences
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10.7.1. Exposure in hillforts
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10.7.2. Alternative disarticulation pathways
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10.8. The ‘invisible dead’—where are they?
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10.8.1. Cremation after excarnation
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10.8.2. Deposition in water
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10.9. The importance of skulls
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10.9.1. Bone working—amulets and bowls
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10.9.2. Complete skulls—display and denigration
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10.9.3. Bone or flesh
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10.10. Summary
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11. Conclusion
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11.1. Introduction
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11.2. Findings and contribution
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11.3. Limitations
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11.4. Further research directions
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11.5. Final Summary
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Bibliography
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Appendix 1. Raw datasheets for all data can be accessed online using the following dois
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Appendix 2. Data summary for bone groups and bundles
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A2.1. Cambridgeshire
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A2.2. Bedfordshire
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A2.3. Norfolk
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A2.4. Suffolk
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A2.5. Kent
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A2.6. Unusable examples
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Appendix 3. Excluded inhumations
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A3.1. Introduction
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A3.2. Securely Iron Age inhumations with insufficient recording
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A3.3. Questionably dated inhumations, and those with poorer recorded information
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A3.4. Empty graves
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Back Cover
Citable Link
Published: 2022
Publisher: BAR Publishing
- 9781407360232 (paper)
- 9781407360249 (ebook)
BAR Number: B678
